EC-11 – Homo Religiosus

This is the “course 11” page.

Here you will find the course : Elements of Natural Logic,
Learning to think logically.

Preface

The birth date of logics (formalized thinking) is 1879, when G. Frege (1848/1925) published his Begriffsschrift (Eine der arithmetischen nachgebildete Formelsprache des reinen Denkens) in Halle. He wanted a “pure thinking” but in a formulaic language after the model of mathematics. Meanwhile, logistics has become something of a sprawl, and many who never had the time to familiarize themselves with it have the impression that their natural thinking skills don’t really mean that much.

Yet time-honored natural logic is more viable than ever! The purpose of these Elements of Logic is to thoroughly introduce you to the natural fact, inherent to every human being gifted with common sense, namely: correct perception and reasoning. Far from formulaic language but close to life. It will turn out that your natural thinking is a more complicated cog than you might imagine.

In order to develop a clear view in this, this book is divided into a number of very small subdivisions which are not difficult in themselves but which make you see the whole thing step by step. And what is one more reason to tackle this work is the fact that it does not shy away from a number of topical issues and in doing so clearly demonstrates the practical usefulness – e.g. in self-study or in discussion meetings – of time-honored logic.

Introduction : Elements of natural logic

1. Introduction 1

2. The title: ‘Elements’ of natural logic 3

3. Logic 4

4. Samples 6

5 Punctuation marks 8

6. In summary. 9

Chapter 1 : general logic

1. Basic structure

1.1 Given/requested: solution 10

1.2 Four types of problem solving. 11

1.3 Phenomenology 14

1.4 Intuition (Contemplation). 19

1.5 Culture in terms of task and solution 20

1.6. This chapter summarized: 22

2. Order Theory

2. 1 Theory of order (Harmology). 23

2. 2 Identity within natural logic. 25

2. 3 Formae per se (Knowing and thinking contents). 27

2. 4 Model theory 29

2. 5 The term ‘being’ 32

2. 6 Sign Theory. 33

2. 7 Similarity and coherence in premodern thought 35

2. 8 Tropological value sense 37

2. 9 The concept of collection. 38

2.10 This chapter summarized: 40

3. Laws of Thought

3.1 Laws of thought (Identity and rationality) 41

3.2 The Identitive axioms 45

3.3 “Pasei akribeia” (With all accuracy). 47

3.4 Reason axiom (Variants). 49

3.5 Reasons and its articulations 52

3.6 Reason or ground in prosocratics. 54

3.7 This chapter summarized: 56

4. Formae (knowing and thinking contents – types).

4. 1 Three types 58

5. Common logic

5.1 The ‘common’ mind 62

5.2 Logic in the common sense 66

5.3 Logical rewriting 67

5.4 Childish thinking 69

5.5 Folk wisdom 70

5.6. This chapter summarized: 72

6. Fallacies

6.1 The concept of fallacy. 73

6.2 Ignoratio elenchi, an error of thought 76

6.3 Circular reasoning 78

6.4 Criticism regarding a “Final Reason”. 82

6.5 Paradox 86

6.6 Paradox as implausible afterthought 89

6.7 Argumentum ad hominem 92

6.8 Connection terms 94

6.9 Similarity and consistency 95

6.10 Consistency is not similarity. 96

6.11 Neurotic and sound judgment 98

6.12 Unconscious concepts 99

6.13 The fact and its obviousness 100

6.14 Skeptical method 102

6.15. This chapter summarizes: 104

7. Basic Method

7.1 Compare 106

7.2 The comparative method 107

7.3 Differentiate (mathematical and non-mathematical) 109

7.4.This chapter summarized: 110

8. Configuration Science

8.1 Combinatorics, configuration science. 111

8.2 Algorithm 113

8.3 Algorithms as programming. 115

8.4. This particle summarizes. 117

9. Full induction

9. 1 Summative induction (distributive and collective). 118

9. 2 Amplificatory induction (distributive and collective) 120

9. 3 Summering at Plato 121

9. 4 Dilemmatic closing speech 125

9.5. This chapter summarized: 127

10. The ontological foundation

10.1 Elements of ontology 128

10.2 Nominalism and realism 132

10.3 Logos 140

10.4 The being and the non-being 142

10.5 Being(s) and becoming(s) 143

10.6 Non-ontological language regarding his(the) 145

10.7 Information (existential and essential) 146

10.8 This chapter summarized: 148

Chapter 2, Special logic

1 Conceptualization

1. 1 The concept

1.1.1 The concept (content/scope). 151

1.1.2 Antonomasia (exchange name) 155

1.1.3 Universalia 156

1.1.4 Limitation of physics 158

1.1.5 ‘Private’ or ‘some’ (Not all / even all). 159

1.1.6 Symbol-shortened terms 162

1.1.7. This subsection summarizes: 163

1. 2 Definition and classification

1.2.1 Definition (content) and classification (scope) 165

1.2.2 Aristotelian categorems (predicabilities). 167

1.2.3 Definition as a calculated enumeration 169

1.2.4 Eristics 170

1.2.5 The method of counter models 171

1.2.6. The Aristotelian categories (predicaments). 172

1.2.7 The Chreia (chrie) as a definition 174

1.2.8 Ascending definition 176

1.2.9 Definition of the singular 177

1.2.10 Some more types of defining 178

1.2.11 Definition of ‘postmodern’ 180

1.2.12 Perception : sensory and intellectual 181

1.2.13 Demonstrating 184

1.2.14 Definition in story form 188

1.2.15 Peirce’s pragmatic maxim 189

1.2.16 What were Henok and Elias? 190

1.2.17 Definition of ‘Psychiatric illness’ 192

1.2.18. This chapter in summary 193

1.3 Textology

1.3.1 Textuology 195

1.3.2 Theme 196

1.3.3 This section summarizes: 198

2. Doctrine of Judgment

2.1. The judgment

2.1.1 The judgment (quantity/quality) 199

2.1.2 The judgment in itself and in context 202

2.1.3 The reason for a judgment 203

2.1.4 Testability of statements 205

2.1.5 Semantic stages 207

2.2. The intentionality of a judgment

2.2.1 Intentionality 210

2.2.2 Each judgment relies on comparison 211

2.2.3 Judgmental truth 213

2.2.4 partial evidence 215

2.2.5. This particle summarizes. 216

2.3. Typology

2.3.1 Analytical and synthetic judgment 217

2.3.2 Axiom 219

2.3.3 The value judgment 221

2.3.4 Value judgments. 222

2.3.5 Ethical judgment falls back on axioms 223

2.3.6. This particle summarized: 225

3. Reasoning Theory

3.1. syllogistic reasoning

3.1.1 Syllogistics 226

3.1.2 If, then – connections 230

3.1.3 Combinatorics within the syllogism 232

3.1.4 Enthymeen (unsaid reason or inference) 237

3.1.5 The role of the middle term 239

3.1.6. This section summarized. 240

3.2 Three basic schemes

3.2.1 Reasoning (deduction/reduction) 241

3.2.2 Reasoning: some formulas 243

3.2.3 Reasoning (deduction / generalization / globalization) 248

3.2.5 Deduction and reduction modalities 251

3.2.6 Induction as generalization or generalization 253

3.2.7 Reasoning (inclusion/exclusion/partial inclusion) 254

3.2.8 This chapter summarized: 256

3.3. Induction

3.3.1 Plato’s concept of induction 258

3.3.2 Dialogical induction 259

3.3.3 Biological induction 261

3.3.4 Human induction (understanding). 263

3.3.5 Probability in syllogism form 265

3.3.6 Statistical induction 267

3.3.7 Hume’s concept of ‘induction’ 269

3.3.8 Analogical reasoning 270

3.3.9 This chapter summarized. 272

3. 4 Systems of authority

3.4.1 The authority argument 274

3.4.2 Faith 275

3.4.3 Consensus gentium 277

3.4.4 Mentality is group taxonomy 278

3.4.5 White mentality 280

3.4.6 Righteousness method (Ch. Peirce) 281

3.4.7 This chapter summarized. 282

4. Science

4.1. The concept of science

4.1.2. The entire Aristotle. 286

4.1.3. Science as applied logic 287

4.1.4. Theory of science (epistemology) 289

4.2. Scientific links

4.2.1 Conditions doctrine 292

4.2.2 Function 295

4.2.3 Functional laws 298

4.2.4 Causal theory 299

4.2.5 Sequence, condition, cause 301

4.2.6 “Cum hoc; ergo propter hoc” 302

4.2.7 Storytelling 303

4.2.8 Narrativism 306

4.2.9 Coincidence as zero explanation 307

4.2.10 Teleological reason 309

4.2.11 Antique Steering 310

4.2.12 Cybernetics 312

4.2.13 Self-regulation 314

4.2.14 Statistical laws 316

4.2.15 This chapter summarized: 317

4.3 Mathematical thinking

4.3.1 A preliminary definition 320

4.3.3 Mathematical induction 322

4.3.4 Axiomatic definition 323

4.3.5 Aristotelian axiomatic – deductive method 325

4.3.7 Full evidence 327

4.3.8 Analysis (letter language) 329

4.3.9 Logical independence of mathematics 332

4.3.10. This chapter summarized: 333

4.4 Formalized thinking

4.4.1 Formalism 335

4.4.2 Logistics is not logic 337

4.4.3 G. Jacoby on logic and logistics 339

4.4.4 If, then – relations (stoic) 340

4.4.5 A word about logistic linguistics 342

4.4.6 The limits of Aristotelian’ logic 344

4.4.7 This Chapter Summary 345

4. 5. Deductive and reductive thinking

4.5.1 Fates (deduction) 347

4.5.2 Historical logic 348

4.5.3 Hegel’s deduction as data understanding 350

4.5.4 Destiny (Reductive) 351

4.5.5 Lemmatic – analytical reasoning 352

4.5.6 Investment between chance and fear of losing 354

4.5.7 The concept of chance in theories 356

4.5.8 Freedom and legality 359

4.5.9 I could have acted differently 361

4.5.10. This little chapter summarized. 362

4.6 Science problems

4.6.1 The standard concept of ‘science’ 365

4.6.2 The finiteness of science 366

4.6.3 Boulder mentality/boulder science 367

4.6.4 Statistical research on paranormal phenomena 368

4.6.5 A dose of glare 370

4.6.6 Scientific interpretation of religion 373

4.6.7 Serendipity (similarity and coherence). 374

4.6.8. This chapter summarizes: 376

4.7 Alpha, beta, and gamma sciences

4.7.1 Humanities 378

4.7.2 Science and culture 380

4.7.3 Humanities/natural sciences 381

4.7.4 Materialism (ideology/method) 382

4.7.5 Operational definition 385

4.7.6 W.K. Heisenberg’s uncertainty axiom 386

4.7.7 Operational humanities 387

4.7.8 Cognitive sciences 389

4.7.9 Philosophy of mind within cognitivism 390

4. 8 Logicisms

x4.8.1 Logicisms 392

x4.8.2 Reasoning theories 393

x4.8.3 This chapter summarized: 398